The Divine
Essence and Qualities
If
we analyze the nature of a human being, we see that he has an
essence which is his individual humanity and also qualities through
which his essence is known, such as the quality of being born
in such a land, or being the son of such a person, or being learned
and capable, or tall and handsome; or he possesses the contrary
of these qualities. Some of these qualities, like the first and
second, can never be separated from the essence, and others, like
being learned or capable, have the possibility or separation and
alternation. Yet all are different from the essence and at the
same time different from each other.
This point, namely
the difference between the essence and qualities and between the
qualities themselves, is the best proof that an essence that has
qualities, and a quality that makes known an essence, are both
limited and finite. For if the essence were limitless and infinite
it would encompass the qualities as well, and also the qualities
would include each other, and as a result all would become one.
For example, the essence of man would be the same as capability
and also capability the same as knowledge; height and beauty would
be the same; and all of these would possess the same meaning.
From this example
it is clear that the Divine Essence cannot be conceived to have
qualities in the sense that human beings have qualities. A quality
can come about only through setting limits and the Divine Essence
transcends all limitations (even the limitation of this transcendence
which in reality is a quality).
The Meaning of
the Divine Qualities
In the world of creation
we are aware of many perfections which appear in the form of qualities.
These are positive qualities which, wherever they appear, make
the object of which they are the quality more perfect and increase
its ontological value, as can be seen clearly in the comparison
between the live being such as man and a lifeless one such as
a stone. Doubtless God has created and bestowed these perfections
upon creatures; if He had not possessed them in their fullness
Himself He could not have bestowed them upon others and perfected
others through them. Therefore, if we follow the judgment of sound
reasoning we must conclude that God, the Creator, has knowledge,
power, and every other real perfection. Furthermore, as has already
been mentioned, the marks of His knowledge and power and, as a
result, the marks of life are seen in the order of the cosmos.
But because the Divine
Essence is limitless and infinite these perfections which are
shown to be His Qualities are in reality the same His Essence
and one with each other. The difference observed between the Essence
and the Qualities and at the same time between the Qualities themselves
is only on the plane of concepts. Essentially there is but one
Reality involved which is one and indivisible.
In order to avoid
the inadmissible error of limiting the Essence through attributing
qualities to it or denying the principle of perfection in it,
Islam has commanded its followers to preserve a just balance between
affirmation and negation. It has ordered them to believe that
God has knowledge but not like the knowledge of others. He has
power but not like the power of others. He hears but not with
ears. He sees but not with eyes like those of men, and so on.
Further Explanation
Concerning Qualities
Qualities in general
are of two types : qualities of perfection, and qualities of imperfection.
Qualities of perfection, as mentioned above, are of a positive
nature and give higher ontological value and greater ontological
effect to the object that they qualify. This is clear from the
comparison between a live, knowing and capable being and a dead
being which lacks knowledge and capability. Qualities of imperfection
are the reverse of such qualities. When we analyze these imperfect
qualities we see that they are negative and show a lack of perfection,
such as ignorance, impatience, ugliness, illness, and the like.
Therefore, it can be said that the negation of the quality of
imperfection is the quality of perfection. For example, the negation
of ignorance is knowledge and the negation of impotence is power
and capability.
For this reason the
Holy Quran has related each positive quality directly to God and
negated every quality of imperfection from Him, attributing the
negation of such imperfections to Him, as He says: "He is the
knower, the Omnipotent," or He says, "He is the Alive" or "Neither
slumber nor sleep overtaketh Him," or "Know that ye cannot frustrate
Allah."
The point that must
never be forgotten is that God, the Most Exalted, is Absolute
Reality without any limit or boundary. Therefore, a positive quality
attributed to Him will not possess any limitation. He is not material
and corporeal or limited to space and time. While possessing all
positive qualities He is beyond every quality and state which
belongs to creatures. Every quality which in reality belongs to
Him is purified from the notion of limitedness, as He says, "Nought
is as His likeness." (Quran, XLII, 11)
Qualities of
Action
In addition, qualities
are also divided into qualities of essence and qualities of action.
A quality sometimes depends only on the qualified itself, such
as life, knowledge and power, which depend on the person of a
living, knowing and capable human being. We can conceive of man
in himself possessing these qualities without taking into consideration
any other factor.
At other times a quality
does not depend only on the qualified in itself, but, in order
to qualify, it also requires the existence of something external
as in the case of writing, conservation, desire, and the like.
A person can be a writer if he possesses ink, pen, and paper,
and he can converse when there is someone with whom to speak.
In the same way he can desire when there is an object of desire.
The sole existence of man is not sufficient to bring these qualities
into existence.
From this analysis
it becomes clear that the Divine Qualities which are the same
as God's Essence, as already pointed out, are only of the first
kind. As for the second kind, whose actualization depends upon
an external factor, they cannot be considered as Qualities of
the Essence and the same as the Essence, for all that is other
than God is created by Him and so, being situated in the created
order, comes after Him.
Qualities that pertain
to God after the act of creation such as creator, omnipotent,
giver of life, giver of death, sustainer, etc., are not the same
as His Essence but are additional to it; they are Qualities of
Action. By Quality of Action is meant that after the actualization
of an act the meaning of a quality is understood from that act,
not from the Essence (that performs the act), such as "Creator",
which is conceived after the act of creation has taken place.
From the creation is understood the quality of God as Creator.
That quality depends upon creation, not upon the sacred Essence
of God, the Most Exalted, Himself, so that the Essence does not
change from one state to another with the appearance of that quality.
Shi'ism considers the two qualities of will (iradah) and speech
(kalam) in their literal meaning as Qualities of Action (will
meaning wanting something and speech meaning conveying a meaning
through an expression). Most of the Sunni theologians consider
them as implying knowledge and thereby take them to be Qualities
of Essence.
Destiny and Providence
The law of causality
reigns throughout the world of existence without any breach or
exception. According to this law each phenomenon in this world
depends for its coming into being upon causes and conditions which
make its actualization possible. If all of these causes, which
are called the complete cause (the sufficient and necessary cause),
are actualized, the coming into being of that phenomenon, or the
assumed effect, becomes determined and necessary. And assuming
the lack of all or some of these causes, the actualization of
the phenomenon is impossible. Investigation and analysis of this
thesis will clarify this point for us.
(1) If we compare
a phenomenon (or effect) with the whole, complete (or sufficient)
cause, and also with the parts of the complete cause, its relation
to the complete cause is based on necessity and relation to each
of the parts of the complete cause (which are called incomplete
or partial causes) is one of possibility and lack of complete
determinism. These causes provide the effect only with the possibility
of existence, not with its necessity.
The world of existence,
in its totality, therefore, is governed throughout by necessity
because each of its parts has a necessary connection with its
complete cause by the very fact of coming into being. Its structure
is composed of a series of necessary and certain events. Yet,
the character of possibility is preserved in its parts if we consider
each part separately and in itself in the phenomena which are
related and connected to partial causes which are other than their
complete cause.
The Holy Quran in
its teachings has called this reign of necessity Divine Destiny
(qada'), for this necessity issues from that Source that gives
existence to the world and is therefore a command (hukm) and "Divine
Decree" that is certain and is impossible to breach or disobey.
It is based on justice and accepts no exception or discrimination.
God Almighty says, "His verily is all creation and commandment"
(Quran, VII, 54), and "When He decreeth [qada] a thing, He saith
unto it only: Be! and it is" (Quran, II, 117), and also "(When)
Allah doometh there is none that can postpone His doom [hukm]"
(Quran, XIII, 41).
(2) Each part of the
cause provides the appropriate measure and "model" for the effect,
and the coming into being of the effect is in accordance with
the totality of the measures determined for it by the complete
cause. For example, the causes that make respiration possible
for man do not cause respiration in the absolute and unconditioned
sense ; rather they send a determined amount of the air around
the mouth and nose through the respiratory channel to the area
of the lungs in a determined time and with a determined shape.
Likewise, the causes of man's vision (including man himself) do
not bring into being vision as such without limits or conditions,
but rather a vision which, through the means and organs provided,
is limited and measured for men in every respect. This truth is
to be found without exception in all the phenomena of the world
and all the events that occur in it.
The Holy Quran has
called this aspect the truth "Providence" (qadar) and has related
it to God Almighty who is the origin of creation, as has been
said, "And there is not a thing but with Us are the stores thereof.
And we send it not down save in appointed measure [qadar]" (Quran,
XV, 21).
In the same way that
according to Divine Destiny the existence of each phenomenon and
even which occurs in the cosmic order is necessary and cannot
be avoided, so also according to Providence each phenomenon and
event that occurs will never trespass or disobey in the least
degree the measure which God has provided for it.
