At the end of this exercise, you will need to have done the following:

This site contains a grid which will take you to copies of the election manifestos from all the elections since 1945. You are not expected to read the entire manifestos! All you need to do is gain a basic awareness of what the parties were saying. In order to do this, it is suggested that you just read and briefly outline the introductions/first few pages of the appropriate Conservative and Labour manifestos, and perhaps the final couple of pages as well. For the purpose of this exercise, ignore other parties manifestos.

Use this list as a checklist of activities:

This was the first General Election to be held in Britain since 1935. Unlike in the USA, elections in Britain were suspended as a result of World War II. Britain declared war on Nazi Germany in 1939, because of Germany's refusal to withdraw her troops from Poland. The war was obviously bitter and there were many setbacks during its progress.

During this period, party politics was essentially suspended, and Britain was governed by a government of National Unity, comprised of MPs from all three main political parties - the Conservatives, Labour and the Liberals. There was obviously great hardship for the people. Food was rationed and there was always the imminent threat of bombing or raids.

On the political front, in 1942, the Government published the Beveridge Report that set out the idea of a comprehensive health, education and welfare service for all citizens, free at the point of consumption, and paid by National Insurance. Meanwhile, the War ended in 1945, and the Conservative Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, who many hailed as a hero, called a General Election in July 1945...

…and lost. The first Labour Government was elected with a massive overall majority of 146 seats (although this is nothing compared to the overall majority of 179 in 1997). The victory surprised most people, and Churchill was very upset by what he considered to be a betrayal by the British people. However, there were many obvious reasons for Churchill's defeat.

Churchill was unattractive as a peace-time leader. The man who got Britain through the War was considered inappropriate to lead it during peace. The Conservatives were also linked with hardship and poverty, and the sacrifices of the War led to the expectation of welfare reforms. Labour's acceptance of the Beveridge Report seemed to offer this. Furthermore, Labour's part in the wartime coalition had made it seem a respectable governing party - worth a risk at the election.

Also, compared to Labour, the Conservative election campaign was inept and complacent. Churchill had considered that he had little need to campaign, and that the people would automatically re-elect the man who had won the war for them. He could not have been more wrong. Labour won 48.4% of the votes and 393 seats. The Conservatives won 213 seats, and only 39.8% of the vote – a devastating result, but not nearly as bad as in 1997. Note the historical significance of the 1997 General Election result. Meanwhile, back in 1945, the Liberals gained only 12 seats with 9.1% of all votes cast. The turnout was average at 73.3%.

The Government elected in 1945 was to last five years until 1950, and is generally considered to be one of the great reforming governments in political history. Amongst its’ achievements was the establishment of the National Health Service and a comprehensive system of education for all citizens. However, although down, the Conservative Party was far from out…

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1950 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

In 1945, the first Labour government had come to power with a huge overall majority of 146 (note, however, that this is far smaller than the 179 achieved by Tony Blair in 1997). The government had largely fulfilled all the pledges of its election manifesto entitled "Let us face the future".

There were three main reasons for the success of the 1945 – 50 administration in fulfilling its election pledges. Firstly, this was the first Labour administration to have an overall majority. Secondly, it was the first Labour administration with experienced front-benchers. Thirdly, in the aftermath of war, all the main parties agreed on the best policies to get the country on its feet again. In other words, there was a "consensus" or agreement about what policies were needed in order to re-build the nation after the Second World War.

The economy played a key role in the 1950 election. The Government led by Clement Atlee was forced to rely on American loans through the Bretton Woods agreement of 1944 which was negotiated by John Maynard Keynes (a famous economist). However, by 1950, the economy was recovering, and the 1948 Marshall Aid Plan played a large part in this. (The Marshall Plan was a programme of financial aid, largely paid for by the USA in order to re-build Europe from the ruins of War).

The Welfare State had been established by this Labour administration. This was done largely through two Acts - The National Insurance Act of 1946 provided benefits, particularly sickness, unemployment and pensions. The 1946 National Insurance Act had established the National Health Service and a free and comprehensive health service for all.

With regard to foreign affairs, the Attlee Administration seemed to view foreign policy as a "betrayal" of socialist principles with the government finding increasingly close links with America, and becoming increasingly hostile to the USSR, with its "iron curtain" policy.

This period saw the start of the "Cold War" (a period of hostile relations between the West and East that lasted up until the collapse of the Berlin Wall and USSR in the early 1990s).

The British Empire was also in decline. In 1947, Britain withdrew from India (and Burma and Ceylon in 1948) and from Palestine, also in 1948. This marked the start of the decline of Britain as a world power that was made worse by it’s declining importance in relation to the two super-powers (the USA and the USSR).

Labour won the election that was held in February of this year. However its overall majority was drastically reduced from the spectacular result of 1945. Labour won 315 seats (46.1% of the vote) to the Conservative's 299 (43.5%). The Liberals gained 9 seats with 9.1% of the vote. The turnout at 84.0% was very high - more than 11% higher than the previous election in 1945.

However, with the Government having such a small majority, another election was only a year away…

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1951 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

The Labour government, elected in 1950, was only able to stay in office for one year, as it had a very small majority. Labour had been in government since 1945, when it won a landslide victory with 393 seats. It had won again in 1950, but its overall majority was tiny – hence another election in 1951 – only a year after the previous one of 1950.

Only having been in office for a year, there were very few real issues in the election campaign. If anything, the predominance of foreign affairs, which had taken priority since 1945, continued to dominate. The Korean War had started in 1950 when North Korea invaded South Korea. British forces were involved as part of the United Nations force sent in to stop what was seen as unwarranted communist aggression. The war, which ended in July 1953 made worse the West-East divide, made the "Cold War" even worse, and as a result the USA put pressure on Britain to establish a rearmament programme (in other words, to build up its stockpile of military weapons). This had not been much of a priority since 1945 as the governments finances had been diverted into the creation of the Welfare State (e.g. the NHS) after the War.

It was not entirely clear why Prime Minister Clement Atlee opted for an election only a year after his last victory. True, the government did have a very small overall majority, but it would have been sufficient to last a lot longer than a year. It is generally agreed that age, tiredness and illness - now common in the Cabinet - all played a strong part.

Labour's small majority - with MPs being brought in to Common's votes on stretchers – was also important. Labour went to the country in October 1951, promising modernisation, moderation and consolidation. It was also the first Labour manifesto since 1923 not to mention socialism.

As can happen with the "First-Past-the-Post" electoral system, Labour got more votes than the Conservatives, but the Conservatives got more seats, and therefore won the election, and were invited to form a government.

Sir Winston Churchill (Leader of the Conservative Party) once again became Prime Minister. It was to be the start of thirteen years of Conservative rule.

The voting figures in the election were Labour 295 seats (48.8%); Conservatives 321 seats (48.0%) and the Liberals 6 seats (2.5%). The turnout, at 82.5% was very high, although not as high as the previous election in 1950.

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1955 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

The previous General Election had been in 1951, when Winston Churchill (Conservative) had become PM again at the age of 77.

One of the main issues during this period was the policy of "Butskellism" This was not the name of a policy, but was the nick-name given to the economic policies of the 1951 – 1955 government. The word is a combination of the names of two leading politicians of the time, Conservative Chancellor Rab Butler, and Labour Leader Hugh Gaitskell. There was at this time a general agreement between the political parties regarding the way forward in terms of policy – there was very much a "Post-War Consensus" in that all parties saw the need for a comprehensive system of welfare provision and education for all, after the devastation caused by the Second World War.

As mentioned, welfare provision was continued – even though this was largely a policy set up and run by the Labour Governments of 1945 – 1951. Another Labour policy – nationalisation - (the ownership by the government of many industries) was accepted with the exception of iron and steel.

Economic policy consisted of trying to control unemployment whilst encouraging a post-war boom (large-scale growth in the economy).

Whereas consensus existed between the two main parties, there was growing dissent within the Labour party. The left, under the leadership of Bevan, pushed for extended nationalisation and an anti-nuclear policy. The left rebelled against the party's support of Conservative defence policy, sometimes causing bitter internal disputes within the Labour Party (echoes of the 1980s).

Conservative Prime-Minister, Winston Churchill, now over 80, became increasingly ill, and resigned in 1955. He was replaced by Anthony Eden who immediately called a General Election.

The 1955 election saw the Conservatives returned to power with 345 seats and 49.7% of the votes - nearly half the total vote. Labour was deeply demoralised and defeated with 277 seats, but a very respectable 46.4% of the votes [Note that this is 2% more than Labour gained in 1997, when they won 419 seats!]. The Liberals remained on 6 seats - only 2.7% of votes being cast for them. The turnout at 76.8% was lower than in previous elections.

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1959 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

The Conservatives had won both the 1951 and 1955 General Elections, and so in 1959, they were going for a "hat-trick". Conservative Leader, Sir Winston Churchill had become increasingly ill, and resigned in 1955, to be replaced by Anthony Eden.

Although a respected diplomat, Eden demonstrated a poor grip on domestic and financial affairs, and his performances at the dispatch box of the House of Commons (during Prime Minister’s Question Time etc) were inept and sometimes incompetent. His ability quickly became the subject of rumours and questions, and in January 1956 he was forced to issue a statement declaring that he was not about to resign – hardly the mark of a man with his finger on the pulse! Constant illness also affected him.

In 1956 the Government was rocked by the Suez crisis. In retaliation for Western withdrawal of loans to fund the Aswan Dam, (in the middle-east) the Egyptian leader, Nasser nationalised (took government control of) the Suez Canal Company, which owned the Suez Canal – a vital strait of water as it was the trading link between east and west).

After the failure of negotiations aimed at some form of international control, Britain and France, supported by Israel sent troops to Egypt in November 1956 and directly threatened Egypt with military action. This strong reaction was provoked by the fact that 25% of British trade, and most of Britain's oil passed through the canal, and without access, the British economy would be severely strained.

This was one of the biggest diplomatic errors Britain has ever committed. Instead of being supported by the leading world nations, as Britain had assumed it would be, Britain was put under enormous pressure to back down, and was eventually forced to withdraw her troops from the area. Most humiliatingly of all, the country that Britain had though of as her great ally, the USA, was one of the loudest protestors. This damaged relations between Britain and the USA and opened wounds which have not healed to this day.

Although criticised by sections of the Conservative Party, both for going into Suez, and for coming out again, Eden survived the crisis - just. However, it was a case of going whilst he still had some integrity left, and Eden resigned in 1957, to be replaced as Prime Minister by Harold MacMillan (MP for Stockton!). Note that at this time, there was no leadership election in the Conservative party. The leader used to "emerge" by a process of consultation and agreement.

The election was held in October 1959, and the Conservatives, led by Harold Macmillan increased their overall majority to 100 seats. The results were Conservatives 365 seats (49.4% of the votes); Labour 258 (43.8%) and the Liberals 6 seats (5.9%). The turnout at 78.7% was higher than the previous election.

Labour had now lost three elections in a row - losing more seats each time, and the Liberals seemed stuck on six seats. This result revitalised the Conservatives - still smarting from the effects of Suez, and was seen as a personal triumph for Macmillan. He seemed to ensure both prosperity and peace, and he was good on the new electoral medium of television. Labour was seen as split, and there seemed no reason to change. It seemed that the electorate believed the Conservative's electoral slogan of "Life is good under the Conservatives - Don't let Labour ruin it". [Notice the similarity in the Conservative’s 1997 slogan "Britain is Booming, Don’t Let Labour Blow It" – slightly different result, though!].

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1964 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

By 1964, the Conservatives had won three general elections in a row (1951, 1955 and 1959) and so in 1964, the party was going for four-in-a-row.

Things were looking good for the Conservatives again. It seemed as though Prime Minister (and Conservative Leader) Harold Macmillan (MP for Stockton) could do no wrong.

In a very famous quote, Harold MacMillan was once asked what he feared most about being Prime Minister. His reply of "Events, dear boy. Events…" was to prove a bad omen.

The economy soon began to worsen, and the government was rocked by scandals (today, they would be known as "sleaze") and, those events. In 1962, there was the infamous "Night of the Long Knives" when Macmillan sacked over a third of his Cabinet. Macmillan was trying to breath new life into a tired looking government, but in the process had created many enemies and plotters within his own party. His attempt to rid himself of his troublesome demons left him looking vulnerable and scared, rather than the strong commander he had hoped.

There were several other politically significant factors this period:

Decolonisation (Britain giving independence to its former territories around the world). This had started in the 1950s but speeded up after 1959. The 1960 - 1964 period saw Britain lose many of its largest colonies, including Nigeria, Cyprus, Jamaica, Uganda, Kenya and Malta. This marked a further decline in the world status of Britain, and didn’t bode well for the government.

EEC (European Economic Community, now renamed the European Union (EU)). In an attempt to increase Britain’s world and European status, Macmillan applied for entry in 1961. However, the entry was vetoed by French President, Charles De Gaulle, who suspected Britain's motives, and was weary of Britain’s links with the USA. He considered that if Britain was admitted to the Community it would prove troublesome. History may have proved De Gaulle correct. This rejection seemed typical of Britain's declining status.

Scandal - the government was rocked by several spy cases during 1962 - 63, including Vassall, an Admiralty Clerk jailed for spying for the USSR. Vassall, a homosexual, was alleged to have been "under the protection" of two government ministers; an enquiry cleared them, but not before one had resigned because of media-pressure. All this was nothing compared to the Profumo affair of June 1963. Profumo, Minister for War, had been having an affair with a model, Christine Keeler, who in turn was having an affair with a Russian diplomat. In March 1963, Profumo had denied the affair, but a subsequent enquiry had found him guilty of lying to Parliament, and he resigned (the film "Scandal" tells the full story).

In October 1963, ill-health and continuing scandal forced Harold Macmillan to resign, and the new Conservative Leader, Alec Douglas-Home called a General Election exactly a year later.

The Conservatives were not to win four-in-a-row. Labour won the 1964 Election with a narrow overall majority. The Conservatives lost 61 seats, and thirteen years of Conservative rule had come to an end. The figures were: Conservatives 304 (43.4%) Labour 317 (44.1%) and the Liberals 9 (11.2%). The socially-distant image of Conservative Leader, Alec Douglas-Home (an aristocrat) compared unfavourably with the new, modern image of Labour’s Harold Wilson. The feeling that it was "Time for a Change" was irresistible, and Labour won its first election since 1950.

However, the size of Labour’s overall majority meant that another election was only two years away…

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1966 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

The Conservatives had been in power for thirteen years from 1951 – 1964, but had failed to win a fourth election in 1964. Labour had won that election, but had a very small overall majority. Prime-Minister, Harold Wilson called another election in 1966, in an attempt to increase his overall majority.

The period between 1964 - 1966 saw a number of issues:

The economy - Prime Minister Harold Wilson had inherited a balance of payments problem (in other words, Britain imported far more than it exported) which was worsened by a sterling crisis (lack of confidence in the pound) as the government introduced (expensive) social policies which it had promised in its 1964 election manifesto. To deal with this, Chancellor James Callaghan (who became Prime Minister in the 1970s) introduced three budgets in one year.

The period was one of poor industrial relations (e.g. strikes) and political controversy:

Defence - despite battles between the left and right of the party, Labour retained the nuclear weapon "Polaris". The left maintained a low profile because its leading exponents were in government, and there was concern about Labour's small overall majority.

Vietnam - although bitterly opposed by many backbenchers, Wilson declared British support for America's intervention in Vietnam.

Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) during 1955 and 1956 more Commonwealth countries had become independent.

Wilson's ‘presidential’ style - throughout his administration, Wilson was criticised for taking decisions without consulting with his Cabinet (a criticism which was to be levelled at Mrs Thatcher some twenty years later).

A new Conservative Leader - Alec Douglas-Home, who had lost the 1964 election to Wilson, was replaced by Edward Heath - the first leader to be elected using a formal election system (this is the system that William Hague is now thinking of reforming in order to give Conservative Party members a say in the selection of the party leader).

In the 1966 General Election, the Labour government of Harold Wilson was re-elected, with an increased majority of 96. The Liberals had a slight improvement again with 12 seats.

Labour won for several reasons. Firstly, the Conservatives had not really recovered from losing the 1964 election, having been in office for thirteen years prior to this. They were also not used to their new leader (Edward Heath). The electorate also thought that Wilson had not yet had enough time to show what he could do.

The results of the election were Labour 363 (47.9%); Conservatives 253 (41.9%) and the Liberals 12 (8.5%). The turnout at 75.8% was 2% lower than in 1964.

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1970 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson had won the 1966 General Election with an increased overall majority, having won the 1964 General Election with a very small overall majority. This period of Labour Government from 1966 – 70 saw several main issues:

The Economy - increased strikes, particularly by seamen (1966) and dockers (1967) led to a decline in the value of the pound, and a decline in general confidence in the British economy. To deal with this the government introduced a Prices and Incomes Policy which substantially restricted incomes and pay rises. This was opposed by many backbenchers. Following this was a period of wage restraint, an International Monetary Fund loan (the IMF is a kind of world bank) and some public-spending cuts (public spending meaning government spending on things like health and education). The government also made the unpopular move of raising prescription charges.

Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Employment Secretary Barbara Castle were determined to regulate unions in order to prevent further damage to the economy (all this was finally grasped by the Thatcher Governments in the 1980s). A Bill was introduced in 1969 that placed restrictions on unions (the proposals were called "In Place of Strife"). The Bill was opposed by many backbenchers, some members of the Cabinet and, of course, the Unions themselves. Wilson was forced to withdraw the measures in 1969, but severe damage had been done to Labour Party-Union relations.

The House of Lords - In 1969 the government tried to introduce a Bill to reform the Lords. Both the Conservative right and the Labour left opposed the Bill, which was dropped at an early stage. In the same way as the failed attempt to reform the unions made the government look weak, their botched attempts to reform the Lords had the same effect.

Immigration - in 1968, the government passed the Race Relations Act. The Act was passed to prevent the continued immigration of Kenyans, many of whom had been granted British citizenship. The Act and the fierce controversy and debate which surrounded its’ passing prompted a very famous and extremely controversial speech made by Conservative backbench MP Enoch Powell. The speech included dire warnings about the effect on British society if black people were allowed to continue moving to Britain, and the speech became known as the "rivers of blood speech" (if immigration is allowed to continue, British streets will run with ‘rivers of blood’).

The European Economic Community (EEC, now the European Union (EU). Concerned about economic problems, loss of world status, and the increasingly loose ties with Commonwealth countries, Wilson reversed Labour's position on the EEC (which was previously hostile) and applied for membership. However, the application was, for the second time, vetoed by French President Charles De Gaulle (who was concerned that Britain would not "fit in" with the rest of the EEC). However, De Gaulle resigned in 1968, leaving the way open for another application.

Northern Ireland - the prevention of Catholic civil rights marches led to riots in Derry and Belfast in August 1968. The government sent British troops into Northern Ireland, and they have remained there ever since.

Even given the Government’s less than inspiring record, Labour was still expected to win the 1970 General Election. However, the election of June 1970 produced a shock result. Opinion polls had consistently predicted a Labour victory, and Wilson looked set for another period of office. However, the Conservatives under Edward Heath won an overall majority of 30 seats. The 1970 voting population was larger than in any previous election as, for the first time, 18 year olds had been given the vote by the Labour government in 1969, and they showed their appreciation by overwhelmingly voting Conservative!

The full figures were Conservatives 330 seats (46.4%); Labour 288 (43.0%); Liberals 6 (7.5%). The turnout at 72.0% was 3% lower than the previous election in 1966.

So began a period of Conservative Government which was to prove very controversial…

Most political historians are agreed that the 1970 – 1974 period was a disastrous period of government. The only real success was Britain’s finally gaining entry to the European Economic Community (EEC, now the European Union (EU) in 1973.

This period from witnessed a number of key events:

The Economy - the government adopted a strategy based on the "Selsdon Programme". This was a break from the interventionist policies (meaning government taking direct control and influence in the running of the economy) of previous governments. It involved cuts in public spending (i.e. government spending on things like health and education), and no government money for industries which went bankrupt (previous governments had often bailed out bankrupt companies). However, in 1972, faced with rising inflation and unemployment (at almost one million), Prime Minister, Edward Heath completely changed his policies – this became known as the "U-turn". The government gave large grants to businesses, and nationalised (directly took over the running of), British car company "Rolls Royce" - unheard of for a Conservative administration.

Industrial Relations – the Government had a strategy of restricting union power. The unions reacted very strongly, with mounting strikes and industrial unrest from 1971. The miners (who were at the time a very powerful industrial and political organisation) were totally opposed to the Governments attempts to restrict miners’ wage increases, and the miners went on strike. The miners have traditionally been the sacred enemy of the Conservative Party, with numerous clashes throughout recent history. The miners’ strike of this period was to leave scars on the Conservative Party, the memory of which, an up-and-coming backbench MP, Margaret Thatcher was determined to erase. The miners strike severely affected the electricity generation process (as coal was at this time vital to power generation), and the lack of power supplies forced industries, schools and most businesses to operate what was known as the "three day week". No industries had enough power to operate, and so could only operate for three days every week. The rest of the time schools etc were closed. Electricity to domestic homes was also restricted, and went off completely at 6. 00pm most nights. There was a general feeling that Britain had an horrifically weak government which was the slave of the unions and at the mercy of their whims. This was not a popular administration!

The European Economic Community (EEC, now the European Union (EU) - undoubtedly the government's greatest success, Prime Minister, Edward Heath successfully negotiated British entry to the EEC in 1973, after successive Governments had failed to gain British membership for years. (Previously, British membership of the EEC had been rejected by French President Charles De Gaulle, who had been concerned that Britain would not "fit in" to the Community). Whilst this was an undoubted success for the Heath Government, the issue saw the biggest post-war backbench revolt in the House of Commons with many Labour pro-EEC MPs voting with the Conservatives and many Conservatives voting against.

Liberal Party revival - the newly adopted "community politics" of the Young Liberals saw local election victories, most significantly in Liverpool. 1972 and 1973 saw spectacular Liberal by-election victories (e.g. Orpington in Kent) in previously strong Conservative seats. Remember that this third-party revival will have been helped by the feeling that Britain had a very weak government, and that another party, other than the "failed" Labour/Conservative axis was worth a try.

Local Government - the structure of local government went through its most fundamental reform this century. Heath established a two-tier system, including the setting up of the metropolitan counties.

The new reforms were not supported by Labour, and met with some hostility at local level as old councils and counties were reorganised.

This Government did not have to call a General Election until June 1975, but as you can probably imagine, it was not a popular administration. A government which presides its citizens being plunged into darkness in the middle of Winter at 6 O’ Clock every evening, will struggle to recover its popularity! There was a feeling that Britain was becoming "ungovernable", but Heath did not want the election to be held in 1974. However, amazingly, the opinion polls did begin to register Conservative recovery, and Heath decided to call an election in February 1974.

This was very much a "crisis election". The country had been brought to its knees by the miners dispute, and by the fact that the government seemed incapable of responding effectively. In 1974, soundbites were in their infancy, and Heath asked the country "Who Governs Britain?" (the government or the unions). Not a particularly clever soundbite, in that it invites the answer "Not You!" – and it did…

Hardly surprisingly, the people's answer was to elect the Labour opposition of Harold Wilson - but only just. This was a very close election, with Labour gaining 301 seats to the Conservative's 297. Although Labour gained more seats, because of the way the election system can operate, the Conservatives won more votes - 37.8% to Labour's 37.1%. The Liberals, in keeping with their revival throughout this period, gained 14 seats (19.3%), whilst the turnout in this vital election was 78.1% - high, reflecting the seriousness of the situation facing the country.

Whilst Labour had won, its majority was tiny, and another election was only eight months away...

Before we leave this period, note that it was one of internal turmoil for the Conservative Party. The Party had taken a beating from its traditional enemy, the mineworkers, and the Party was desperately searching for its soul, after the weak leadership of Edward Heath. It was during this period that an up-and-coming female MP had been appointed as Education Secretary by Heath. Margaret Thatcher saw the devastation that the miners had inflicted upon her party, and she was determined to do something about it, when she was to have the opportunity some ten years in the future…

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE OCTOBER 1974 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

The Conservative Government of Edward Heath had narrowly lost the previous election, held in February 1974 (it was in office from 1970 – 1974), and Labour's Harold Wilson had become Prime Minister. However, Wilson's majority of four was clearly inadequate to govern the country, and he had to call another General Election in October 1974. This government therefore only lasted eight months.

In those eight months, there were several events:

Under the 1970 – 1974 Conservative Government, there had been a long and bitter strike by the country’s mineworkers which had led to severe disruption of power-supplies and dreadful union-government relations. The strike ended in March of this year – one month after the election. The miners strike severely affected the electricity generation process (as coal was at this time vital to power generation), and the lack of power supplies forced industries, schools and most businesses to operate what was known as the "three day week". No industries had enough power to operate, and so could only operate for three days every week. The rest of the time schools etc were closed. Electricity to domestic homes was also restricted, and went off completely at 6. 00pm most nights. There was a general feeling that Britain had an horrifically weak government which was the slave of the unions and at the mercy of their whims. The previous Conservative Government had not been a popular one!

New Prime Minister, Harold Wilson abolished the Pay Board, which had been set up under Heath, which had attempted to regulate workers wages. Wilson also set up ACAS - the Advisory Conciliation and Arbitration Service - an organisation that attempted to negotiate between government and strikers. This was an attempt to try and prevent the industrial unrest which had characterised the previous decade.

Serious splits developed in the Labour Government over the European Economic Community (EEC, now the European Union (EU), which Britain had joined in 1973. The Labour Party was bitterly divided on the issue, with many Labour Cabinet members wanting to withdraw from the Community. Wilson promised that if Labour won the election of October 1974, he would renegotiate the terms of Britain's membership and call a referendum on Britain's continued membership. This was largely a tactical measure to keep his warring factions quiet and prevent a major split within the party.

The Parliament which was dissolved in October 1974 had been the shortest since 1681, lasting only 184 days. Labour won the General Election in October, but with a smaller majority than they had hoped for.

Labour won 319 seats to the Conservative's 277. The percentage of the votes won were 39.2% and 35.8% respectively. The Liberals won 13 seats (one down from February) and 18.3% of the votes. The turnout in the election was 72.8%. Until 1997, this was the last General Election won by the Labour Party.

Before we leave this period, note that it was one of internal turmoil for the Conservative Party. The Party had taken a beating from its traditional enemy, the mineworkers, and the Party was desperately searching for its soul, after the weak leadership of Edward Heath. It had also lost two General Elections in the same year, and the party was desperate for a new direction. It was during this period that an up-and-coming female MP had been appointed as Education Secretary by Heath. Margaret Thatcher saw the devastation that the miners had inflicted upon her party, and she was determined to do something about it, when she was to have the opportunity some ten years in the future…

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1979 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

The period from the previous General Election in October 1974 to this one in May 1979 saw all three main parties change their leaders. The Conservatives under Edward Heath had lost both the General Elections held in 1974, and Heath resigned and was replaced by Margaret Thatcher. At this time the Conservative Party was in crisis. It had lost two General Elections in one year, and was badly in need of new ideas and a new direction. It was to be dragged kicking and screaming in a new direction by Margaret Thatcher. Thatcher was not the expected choice of the party. She won because she was the only person who was prepared to stand against Heath. But, we may hear a little more of her later on…

Meanwhile, the Liberal Party Leader, Jeremy Thorpe resigned in scandal. It was revealed that he was a homosexual and had had an affair with a man called Norman Scott. When Scott ended the affair, it was alleged that the distraught Thorpe hired a killer to murder Scott. Thorpe was found not guilty during his trial, but the scandal ended his political career and Thorpe was replaced as Liberal Leader by David Steel. The Labour Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, resigned in 1976, declaring that it was time for a younger man, and being replaced by Jim Callaghan.

The 1974 - 1979 government was continually on the verge of collapse. In March 1977 the Conservative opposition led by Margaret Thatcher threatened a "no-confidence" vote. Labour, no longer having an overall majority (due to deaths of its’ MPs and subsequent by-election defeats), arranged a pact with the Liberal Party - the so-called "Lib-Lab Pact". The Liberals were to be consulted regarding proposed legislation, and devolution was to be granted to Wales and Scotland in return for Liberal support in the Commons (devolution was a major policy aim of the Liberals). In May 1978, the pact collapsed, as Liberal Leader David Steel withdrew his support. Steel was unhappy that the Liberals had not gained the reforms they had wanted, and Liberal party members put pressure on Steel to withdraw from the Lib-Lab pact.

The period saw a number of other issues and events:

The Social Contract - union leaders agreed to limit their pay claims in return for the government scrapping industrial relations legislation – which had limited the powers of trade-unions. However, wage rates began to rise, and the period was one of rising tension and industrial action. All this came to a head in what became known as "The Winter of Discontent". This occurred in 1978 – 1979 and saw strikes by many public sector workers such as lorry-drivers, teachers, nurses and firemen. The country was severely damaged and again, there was a feeling that Britain was becoming impossible to govern.

The loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) – the severe economic problems resulted in the government taking out a massive loan from the IMF. In return, the Fund ordered Britain to "get its financial house in order", and it considered the best way to do this was for Britain to concentrate all its economic resources on keeping down inflation (rising prices) rather than unemployment (which had been the main preoccupation of previous governments). This economic philosophy was called "Monetarism", and was the strategy followed by Margaret Thatcher anyway, so her election in 1979 essentially represented a continuation of previous Labour Policy begun in 1976, albeit with an even tougher regime.

The European Economic Community (EEC, now the European Union (EU) - the Labour government carried out its manifesto pledge (made in October 1974) of holding a referendum on continuing British membership of the Community. The government was split on the issue, but the country voted heavily for continued membership.

Callaghan was expected to hold a General Election in the Autumn of 1978. Remember that if he had done this, the government would not have seen the "Winter of Discontent", and the election result (and politics to this day) may well have looked very different. However, he hesitated, with disastrous consequences. The "Winter of Discontent" brought the government to the brink of collapse, and the Conservative Opposition finally called a "no-confidence" vote in April 1979, which the government lost by one vote, as the Liberal Party refused to back the Labour Government.

The resulting election in May 1979 was fought in dreadful circumstances for the Labour Government. The 1979 Election is considered a forgone conclusion. Given the circumstances, the Conservatives were always going to win the election, and in the campaign they played on the government’s poor economic record (remember the poster, "Labour isn’t Working").

The 1979 Election saw the election of the world's fourth, and Britain's first, woman Prime Minister. The Conservatives promised low taxation and cuts in government expenditure (on such things as health and education). They promised to concentrate on inflation, but, ironically focussed their campaign on Labour's unemployment record, as in the aforementioned poster campaign. The Conservative's also promised to sell council houses to their tenants and to reform the mighty unions (which had brought down the previous Conservative Government of 1970 – 1974), with massive restrictions on their powers and ability to call strikes. The electorate seemed to like what it heard and the Conservatives won 339 seats to Labour's 269 - an overall majority of 44. The percentage of the votes were 43.9% and 37.0% respectively. The Liberals won 13.8% of the votes and 11 seats. Turnout was 76.0%.

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1983 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

In May 1979, Margaret Thatcher had defeated Jim Callaghan's Labour Government and she had become Britain's first woman Prime Minister. Mrs Thatcher had promised something new - "Thatcherism" - an economic and political philosophy based on reduced government expenditure (on such things as health and education) and cuts in direct taxation.

There were a number of key events which preceded the 1983 election, and occurred between 1979 and 1983:

The Government itself – "Dries" v "Wets". Mrs Thatcher did not have universal support within her party for her sometimes very harsh policies. She had nicknamed people who did not agree with her as "wets", but such people were rapidly gaining support within the Party as unemployment under the Conservatives soared towards three million. In 1981, Thatcher had had enough of the "wets" and she sacked many of them who were in her Cabinet. At the same time, she brought in more of her supporters – "dries" who she later described as "one of us", such as Cecil Parkinson, Norman Tebbitt, and Nigel Lawson.

Changes in the Labour Party - following the 1979 election defeat, Labour moved radically to the left. The 1980 party conference agreed to the setting up of an "electoral college" which would elect future Labour leaders. The trade-unions were given 40% of the votes in this college, and the move was opposed by most of the Parliamentary Labour Party (Labour MPs). Labour MPs alone had previously decided the party leader. James Callaghan resigned in 1980 to be replaced by left-winger, Michael Foot. Furthermore, at local level, the Party had in some areas, been infiltrated by the left-wing group, "Militant", particularly in Liverpool. The domination by the left-wing of the party was to result in divisions which helped keep it out of Government throughout the 1980s and into the 1990s. This left-wing leaning also led to…

The birth of a new political party - in 1981, four leading Labour MPs (who were disillusioned with the party’s new left-wing stance) – Shirley Williams, Roy Jenkins, David Owen and Bill Rodgers left the Labour Party and formed a new party - the Social Democratic Party (SDP). The new party was similar in policies to the Liberal Party, and so it was logical that an electoral "pact" was formed. This meant that both party’s would fight elections together, with whichever party was considered to be the weakest of the two in each constituency standing aside to give the other a better chance. The two party’s together became known as the "Alliance". Growing media interest and support led to the growth of the party to 29 MPs (other Labour and one Conservative MP joined the Alliance), and there were some spectacular by-election victories. There was talk of "breaking the mould of British Politics". In 1982, David Steel (Liberal Leader), in an emotional speech to his Conference, stated that: "I am the first Liberal leader in over 50 years to be able to say to his Party, go back to your constituencies, and prepare for Government". If Britain did not have it’s "First-Past-the-Post" electoral system, these may not have turned out to be empty words.

The Falklands War - Argentina (who always claimed possession of the Islands) invaded these islands (which were owned by Britain) in April 1982, and Thatcher's immediate response was to dispatch a taskforce of troops and ships to the islands. There was massive public, media and Parliamentary support for the taskforce, to the point of jingoism and nationalism by some. "The Sun" printed the headline "GOTCHA!" in response to the news that British ships had sunk the Argentine battle-ship "The General Belgrano". Over sixty soldiers had been killed by the action. Britain won the Falklands War after Argentinean forces surrendered in June 1982, and the Thatcher Government immediately soared in it’s opinion poll ratings. Am immensely unpopular government had suddenly gained enormous backing.

The Trade-Unions - Thatcher had been elected promising to reduce the power of the unions. However, her approach was gradual. The government outlawed secondary picketing (whereby strikers picket and protest outside unconnected workplaces in order to try and attract support from other industries’ workers), political disputes and introduced compulsory balloting for strikes – previously strikes could be held by a show of hands.

This Administration had to legally call a General Election by May 1984, however, Mrs Thatcher called an election a year before she had to in June 1983. Some accused her of cashing in on the Conservative's renewed popularity following the Falklands War. However, the economy had begun to recover in late 1982, and the "feel-good" factor was definitely in the air. Thatcher looked strong, tough and confident in opposition to Labour's Michael Foot and a Labour Party committed to a very left-wing stance of abolishing nuclear weapons, withdrawing from the European Economic Community (EEC, now the European Union (EU), and abolishing the Thatcher trade union reforms. The Labour Manifesto was the most radical ever put before the British electorate – Labour MP, Gerald Kaufman described it as "The longest suicide note in history"

In this election, much media attention was focussed upon the leaders, with polls showing that only 19% thought that Foot would be a good Prime Minister. The outcome of the election was never in doubt, the Conservative's were always going to win. The question was simply how big would their majority be?

The election results were very depressing for Labour. The Party went down to its biggest defeat since the War, with many life-long Labour supporters voting for the Alliance, who nearly beat Labour into third place in terms of the percentage of the votes won.

The Conservatives won 397 seats (42.4% of the votes) to Labour's 209 seats (27.6%). The new Alliance party won 25.4% of the votes (over a quarter) but due to the electoral system won only 23 seats. The turnout at 72.7% was lower than in 1979.

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1987 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

Mrs Thatcher's Conservatives had been re-elected in 1983 with the largest number of seats since 1945. The Labour Party had been shocked by its disastrous showing, and in June 1983, Michael Foot resigned as Labour leader to be replaced by Neil Kinnock. Most commentators thought that Labour’s movement to the left, during the early 1980s, had largely been responsible for it’s electoral defeats, and during the 1983 - 1987 period, Kinnock attempted to move Labour away from the left. Four leading right-wing Labour MPs had also broken away from the party and formed the Social Democratic Party (SDP) which had fought the 1983 General Election with the Liberals (together named the "Alliance") gaining 25.4% of the vote (nearly beating Labour into third place). Against this background, Kinnock perceived that a shift to the right would increase Labour’s chances of success and Kinnock began a ruthless purge of extreme left-wingers within the party, many of whom had formed a grouping known as "Militant".

The 1983 – 1987 period saw a number of other key developments:

The Alliance - the Liberals and the new Social Democratic Party had fought the 1983 election as the Alliance, and were to do so again in 1987.

Local Government - in 1984/85 the Conservatives abolished the Greater London Council (GLC) and the Metropolitan Councils.

The Miners – The National Union of Mineworkers (under the leadership of Arthur Scargill) went on strike in 1984/85. The miners have traditionally been the sacred enemy of the Conservative Party, with numerous clashes throughout recent history, but Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher had been a part of the 1970 – 1974 Heath Government which had been defeated by the miners. She was determined that the same fate was not to befall her administration, and her government is characterised as being one of the very few prepared to take on the might of the unions – and more to the point, win. The 1984/85 miners strike was one of the most bitter industrial disputes ever seen in Britain. Lasting over a year, Thatcher was determined to use her new tough anti-union laws to defeat Scargill and the union. A factor which helped the government was that the strike was illegal. Trade Union laws passed by Thatcher meant that a secret ballot had to be conducted in order for strikes to be called, and this had not been the case with regard to this dispute. Sections of the NUM were therefore reluctant to go on strike in the first place, and the union was split – a split which was exploited by the Government. Anti-strike miners broke away from the NUM and formed their own union – the Union of Democratic Mineworkers (UDM). The year-long dispute was bitter and controversial, but Thatcher was determined to defeat the NUM, and they eventually called off the strike. The already mighty Thatcher Administration has scored an important victory over one of the Party’s traditional enemies.

Other unions - continued reduction of powers and unions banned from the Government Communications Head-Quarters (GCHQ) in Cheltenham, amid much talk of the infringement of civil rights.

Privatisation – the Government began to sell-off many of the industries which it owned, thus creating shares in the companies which were deliberately targeted at the small investor or ordinary member of the public. The sales of "British Gas", "British Telecom" and many others led to a huge growth in share ownership, with many ordinary people making huge profits, so called "popular capitalism". A new word was used for the first time – "Yuppie".

The "Westland" Saga - in December 1985, a small helicopter company called "Westland" was threatened with bankruptcy. A dispute developed within Mrs Thatcher’s Cabinet over which company should rescue the ailing helicopter firm. Trade and Industry Secretary, Leon Brittan, had supported a USA company whilst Environment Secretary and critic of Mrs Thatcher, Michael Heseltine, had supported a European alternative. The dispute blew up into surreal proportions, and Heseltine stormed out of the Thatcher Cabinet protesting that Thatcher had not allowed Cabinet discussion on the issue. Brittan was also forced to resign. The issue had become one about Thatcher's style of leadership and also had opened old wounds about the Conservative's view on Europe. Heseltine, who was pro-European protested that Thatcher was becoming increasingly hostile towards Europe and that she would damage the country’s interests by doing so. The downfall of Thatcher in 1990 can be traced back to this episode. Heseltine’s resignation from the Cabinet allowed him to move to the back-benches where he was able to openly criticise the Prime Minister and gather support for any future leadership challenge. As Thatcher became increasingly hostile towards Europe, he was to get his chance in 1990. This saga is also important because it was one of the first times that it became obvious that a fault-line was beginning to develop within the Conservative Party on the issue of Europe. This fault-line was to gradually widen, come to prominence in the 1990s, and played a large part in the party’s crushing defeat in 1997, but more of that later…

"Open Government" - controversy surrounded the sinking of the Argentine ship "The General Belgrano" during the 1982 Falklands War. Mrs Thatcher had personally ordered the sinking of the ship, even though it was later revealed that it had been sailing away from British ships at the time, and posed no threat. A Labour MP, Tam Dayell became very suspicious about the affair, and asked a Civil Servant, Clive Ponting to investigate the matter. Ponting leaked secret papers about the sinking to the MP, and it became clear that the government should have given these documents to a Parliamentary Select Committee which had been investigating the matter. The government was determined to prosecute Ponting (who had broken the Official Secrets Act) and many political commentators doubted the nature of British government procedure.

This second Thatcher Government did not have to call a General Election until June 1988. However, the government decided to go to the country a full year early in June 1987. For the third successive election, the outcome was never really in doubt, although Labour under Neil Kinnock ran a far better campaign, including the now famous party election broadcast nicknamed "Kinnock - The Movie". Inflation was low and unemployment was falling, and the Conservatives promised more privatisations and lower taxes. The 1987 manifesto also included the proposal to replace the unpopular rates system (a tax on housing to pay for local government) with a new tax – "The Community Charge", later to be dubbed "The Poll Tax". In the pages of the manifesto, the policy seemed innocent and insignificant, but it was to impact on the Conservatives like no other policy in the next few years…

Mrs Thatcher won the 1987 General Election with a reduced, though still large majority taking 376 seats and 42.3% of the vote. Labour made modest gains winning 229 seats and 30.8% of the vote - still their second worst showing since 1945. The Alliance took 22 seats and 22.6% of the vote. The turnout at 75.3% was slightly higher than in 1983.

The result of the 1987 Election was an astounding feat for any political party in Britain. Mrs Thatcher had secured a hat-trick of victories and dominated her party. However, early signs of trouble were shown by the "Westland" affair and the proposals for the "Community Charge". However, from the vantage point of June 1987, Mrs Thatcher was riding high, and it seemed as though nothing could go wrong…

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1992 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

Mrs Thatcher had been elected for the third successive time in June 1987, and it seemed as if nothing could go wrong for the Conservative Party. Labour, now under the leadership of Neil Kinnock had gone down to its second worst defeat since 1945. Meanwhile, the opposition vote had been split between Labour and the Liberal/SDP Alliance. Early signs of the trouble that the issue of Europe would later cause the Conservatives were present, but for the most part, Mrs Thatcher seemed to be able to do no wrong…

However, the third Thatcher term got off to a bad start. In October 1987, the world’s Stock Markets crashed, and many people who had bought shares under the Conservatives suddenly realised that their value could go down…and down…and down…as well as up!

Meanwhile in 1988, the Liberals and the SDP agreed to merge and after much wrangling settled upon the name Liberal Democrats. Labour continued its purge of the left-wing, with Kinnock setting up a massive policy review, eventually producing the policy statement: "Meet the Challenge, Make the Change". The review, which formed the basis for the 1992 Election manifesto abandoned Labour’s unilateral nuclear disarmament policy and edged Labour towards a more free-market, pro-European centre-ground party, but as we were to see, the changes were not enough…

The Conservatives continued on their policy agenda: more privatisations followed (e.g. British Steel), and the introduction of "opted-out" hospitals and schools introduced the cold winds of the market into these areas. The Cabinet, however, were beginning to disagree more and more with Mrs Thatcher. Questions were raised about her style of government, and her increasingly hostile attitude to Europe. Her pro-European Chancellor and Foreign Secretary, Nigel Lawson and Geoffrey Howe threatened to resign if she did not set down conditions for Britain’s joining the Exchange Rate Mechanism (a forerunner of the Single Currency) and hostility between the three grew, with Lawson resigning in 1989.

1990 was to prove a turning-point in the history of the Conservative Party. In March, there were huge riots in the centre of London against the Community Charge ("poll tax"). The Charge had been Mrs Thatcher’s personal idea, and was symbolical of the feeling that many Conservatives had that she was becoming increasingly out of touch with reality. In October, Mrs Thatcher finally agree to join the ERM, but within a month, Geoffrey Howe had resigned – making a devastating resignation speech in which he bitterly turned on his old colleague, Mrs Thatcher. The Party was deserting her, and when Michael Heseltine challenged her for the leadership of the Party in November, she failed to gain enough votes to win on the first ballot. The following day, 22^nd November, Mrs Thatcher resigned as party leader, and an historic chapter in British politics ended…

John Major was elected leader of the Conservative Party, and immediately indicated that he wanted Britain "to be at the heart of Europe". Ironically, in 1991, he was responsible for negotiating "Opt-Outs" for the UK at the Maastricht Summit which drew up plans for a European Single Currency. Also in 1991, the Government announced that the "poll tax" would now be replaced by the Council Tax, and one of the policies that had contributed to the downfall of Mrs Thatcher began its decent into the dustbin of history.

The Conservative Party choose John Major in preference to Michael Heseltine because it wanted a period of calm and reflection after the turbulent years of Thatcherism. However, rightly or wrongly, Major began to gain a reputation for dithering, for being too nice, too willing to compromise. Some in the Party began to wonder if they could win the next election after all.

As the last possible date for an election approached, and 1991 turned into 1992, the Conservatives began a poster campaign entitled "Labour’s Tax Bombshell". Four months before an election, the campaign was phenomenally successful in that it implanted in the minds of the voters – very early on – that a vote for Labour would be a vote for higher taxation.

When John Major called the election for April 9^th, few commentators gave the Conservatives a hope. Labour had moved substantially to the right, but was still committed to raising tax on earners of more than £21, 000 – and this was a problem. Many middle-class voters – who Labour needed to attract – did not consider themselves "rich", and the Conservatives were very good at exploiting these voters’ fears. However, as the campaign began, Labour were ahead in the opinion polls by around 5%, and most through that the Conservative era would soon be over.

Whilst the Conservatives did not run a particularly good campaign, neither did Labour. One of Labour’s "strong" issues was Health – there was a perception that the National Health Service had deteriorated under the Conservatives. Labour therefore ran a Party Election Broadcast which caused a row of surreal proportions. The saga became known as "the War of Jennifer’s Ear", after the girl in the broadcast, Jennifer Bennet, had been waiting for over a year for an ear operation – highlighting the growing waiting lists in the NHS. The broadcast had been poorly researched and it turned out that the relatives of the girl highlighted had been members of the Conservative Party, and had not approved of the use of the girl. Labour had blown up on one of its key issues, but this was nothing compared to the events of "Sheffield Wednesday".

On Wednesday April 1^st, Labour held a big rally in which the Shadow Cabinet were announced as the real Cabinet and at which Neil Kinnock, fired-up by the emotion of the evening, shouted, pop-star-like, at the adoring crowds. This had two effects: firstly, it made Labour look as it was taking voters for granted – always a bad move. Secondly, Kinnock’s behaviour was not that of a potential Prime-Minister. Kinnock, never loved or really respected, was not an electoral asset for Labour, and "Sheffield Wednesday" brought to the surface voters’ doubts about him.

As polling day approached, the opinion polls began to narrow, and on the day itself, there is a lot of evidence to suggest that many voters who had genuinely intended to vote Labour, actually, in the end voted Conservative.

The result was a narrow 21 seat majority for the Conservatives who won 336 seats (41.9%) to Labour’s 271 (34.4%). The Liberal Democrats, fighting their first election as a united party gained 20 seats and 17.8% of the vote. Turnout at 77.7% was higher than any election since February 1974.

The Conservatives were therefore elected for a record-breaking fourth term. Labour had suffered four defeats in a row, and many people thought that Labour was finished as an effective electoral force. If Labour could not win in the favourable circumstances of 1992, many people thought they would never win again.

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE 1997 GENERAL ELECTION AND PRECEDING PERIOD

The Conservative Party, now under the leadership of John Major (who had replaced Margaret Thatcher in 1990) had, to the surprise of many, won the General Election held in April 1992 with a narrow overall majority of 21.

The defeated Labour Leader, Neil Kinnock resigned after nine years in the job, to be replaced in July 1992 by John Smith. John Smith began to continue the Kinnock reforms of Labour, and reduced the power of the trade-unions within Labour Party policy-making. However, Smith suffered a massive heart attack in May 1994, from which he died. Labour turned to an up-and-coming member of the Shadow Cabinet for it’s new leader, and Tony Blair was elected, beating John Prescott and Margaret Beckett for the post. Blair immediately began radical reforms of the Party, abolishing Labour’s commitment to nationalisation – Clause IV – and reducing further the power of the unions, and increasing that of the leadership. Blair fashioned a completely new image for the Party – continually describing it as "New Labour" and moving away from its old-fashioned, "tax-and-spend" image. The party, and particularly Blair himself, began to enjoy record-breaking opinion-poll leads…

Meanwhile, the Conservative’s fourth term got off to a disastrous start. In October 1992 – "Black Wednesday", the British pound fell out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), after currency speculators sold billions of pounds, and the government did likewise trying to support the currency. This episode had a devastating effect on government image and popularity, making the government seem incompetent and lacking in direction and now, economic policy!

Major, who only had a majority of 21, began to have difficulty in maintaining the support of his own backbench MPs. The issue, which ran like a fault-line through the Conservative Party, was Europe. Many in the Party were "pro-European", and were increasingly concerned about Major’s sometimes hostile attitude towards our European neighbours. Others in the Party had now become quite anti-European, and were determined that Britain should not become further integrated within the European Union (EU).

Backbench MPs drew first-blood on the votes in the House of Commons on the Maastricht Treaty. John Major, who had staked his political reputation on getting the Treaty through the Commons, was forced to threaten his MPs with a General Election if they did not support him. Whilst his MPs did eventually fall into line, the damage to Major’s reputation had been done.

Badly in need of a morale-boosting policy-initiative, Major launched the "Back-to-Basics" campaign in 1993. Designed as a set of policies emphasising the importance of the family unit and the place of morality in society, it became an ill-timed and botched symbol of a government in terminal decline. The campaign was problematic because many Conservative MPs had, by this time, been involved in extra-marital affairs, many with people of the same sex as themselves. The tabloids and media in general had a field-day, and the image of Conservative hypocrisy became difficult to shake off.

This feeling of double-standards, and of a government which was simply taking the voters for granted, was made worse by a series of financial and other scandals which came to light, and seemed to be an almost daily occurrence between 1994 – 1997:

"Arms to Iraq" – In 1990, the Government had been part of a multi-national military force which had liberated Kuwait after its’ invasion by Saddam Hussain’s Iraq. In 1991 – 1993, it became clear that the Government had secretly sold arms to Iraq – some of which were almost certainly used to kill our own troops. When the scandal necessitated the establishment of an enquiry – the Scott Enquiry – the subsequent report was ignored by the Government, who, despite all the evidence to the contrary, arrogantly denied any wrong-doing!

"Cash for Questions" – Several Conservative backbench MPs had been involved in taking money in return for asking questions in Parliament. This practice is illegal (as an individual should not be able to profit from privileged information such as that which MPs can obtain). Again, the MPs involved, when caught, denied all involvement, and one of them, Neil Hamilton, accepted free stays at posh hotels as well as numerous other "gifts", all without declaring them in the Register of MP’s Interests. Hamilton, and the others, deny any wrong-doing to this day.

"Fat-Cats" – Several Conservative MPs and ex-MPs took lucrative jobs on the Boards of privatised companies privatised by the Conservatives since 1979. This made it look as if the companies had been privatised simply in order to give these MPs very well paid jobs in future years.

Conservative Party Finance – it became apparent that the Government had accepted money from several dubious sources such as Asil Nadir (who is wanted on fraud charges by Scotland Yard). It is alleged that the Conservatives have links with terrorist organisations who also supplied them with election funds, but for legal reasons, we won’t go any further…

Together with Major’s continually declining majority, all these incidents made the Conservative Party look incompetent, greedy, uncaring, and hypocritical and most importantly of all, corrupt. All this at a time when Labour had acquired a leader with a squeaky-clean image who seemed to be able to do no wrong. However, all these scandals are as nothing compared to the implications of…

"BSE/Mad Cow Disease" – Scientific evidence had emerged in 1990 that BSE could be transferred from cows to humans. In 1994 it emerged that the Government had known about the risks to humans, but refused to do anything about it. The implications of this are incalculable – for years, the government sat back and allowed its citizens to consume infected beef in the knowledge that it’s actions would result in the future deaths of thousands – perhaps hundreds of thousands of them. This is largely because the National Farmers Union is a massive donator of funds to the Conservative Party. When the EU banned the export of British beef (describing the British Government as "blatant murderers" and "one of the most incompetent governments in European history"), the government accused the EU of being "anti-British" and promptly slapped bans on many European products!

In 1995, John Major, fed up with all the internal fighting of the Conservative Party, resigned as leader and challenged his party to put up someone against him. Jon Redwood stood against Major and managed to secure approximately 80 votes. Whilst Major did win, the hoped-for boost to his authority did not occur.

Yet in economic terms, the Major years will be seen as quite successful. The recession, under the cloud of which the 1992 General Election had been fought, ended in 1994 – 1995, and both unemployment and inflation began to fall. Interest rates also fell, and in 1996 – 1997, the housing market and consumer spending began to accelerate. Economic well being usually feeds through in increased support for the government, but not this time. 1997 is unique in that it represented a "voteless recovery", and the reasons for this will be analysed for years to come. There is no doubt that voters do not like parties that are divided – and the Conservatives simply could not hide their divisions over Europe. In addition to economic success, the Major Administration will be noteworthy for the progress made in the search for peace in Northern Ireland. Whilst Major did not, in the end, realise his dream of being the Prime Minister to solve the problems of Ulster, his patience and undoubted negotiating skills did secure an IRA and Loyalist cease-fire and progress was made in the shape of the "Downing Street Declaration" and the establishment of all-party talks – something which very few Prime Ministers have achieved.