The Crusades were Christian military expeditions undertaken
between the 11th and the 14th century to recapture the Holy
Land from the Muslims. The word crusade, which is derived
from the Latin crux ("cross"), is a reference to
the biblical injunction that Christians carry their cross (Matt. 10:38). Crusaders wore
a red cloth cross sewn on their tunics to indicate that they
had assumed the cross and were soldiers of Christ.
The causes of the Crusades were many and complex, but prevailing religious beliefs were clearly of major importance. The Crusaders continued an older tradition of the pilgrimage to the Holy Land, which was often imposed as a penance; now, however, they assumed a dual role as pilgrims and warriors. Such an armed pilgrimage was regarded as a justifiable war, because it was fought to recapture the places sacred to Christians.
Jerusalem had been under Muslim rule since the 7th century, but pilgrimages were not cut off until the 11th century, when the Seljuk Turks began to interfere with Christian pilgrims. For Christians, the very name of Jerusalem evoked visions of the end of time and of the heavenly city. To help rescue the Holy Land fulfilled the ideal of the Christian knight. Papal encouragement, the hope of eternal merit, and the offer of indulgences (a sort of holy "credit point" system which promised absolution of sins or assurance of a place in the house of the Lord for participation in the campaign) motivated thousands to enroll in the cause.
Political considerations were also important. The Crusades were a response to appeals for help from the Byzantine Empire, threatened by the advance of the Seljuk Turks. The year 1071 had seen both the capture of Jerusalem and the decisive defeat of the Byzantine army at Manzikert, creating fear of further Turkish victories. In addition, the hopes of the Papacy for the reunification of East and West, the nobility's hunger for land at a time of crop failures, population pressure in the West, and an alternative to warfare at home were major impulses.
The Crusades were equally a result of economic circumstances. Many participants were lured by the fabulous riches of the East; a campaign abroad appealed as a means of escaping from the pressures of feudal society, in which the younger sons in a family often lacked economic opportunities. On a larger scale, the major European powers and the rising Italian cities (Genoa, Pisa, and Venice) saw the Crusades as a means of establishing and extending trade routes.
First Crusade (1096-99)
The First Crusade was launched by Pope Urban II in a speech at the Council of Clermont, France, on Nov. 27, 1095. Urban spoke of the need to help the Christian East and to stop the desecration of the holy places, and stressed the moral duty of keeping the "Peace of God" at home. He appealed for volunteers to set out for Jerusalem and promised remission of ecclesiastical penances as an incentive. The response was overwhelming. With the cry Deus vult! ("God wills it"), thousands took the cross. Bands of poorly armed pilgrims, most of them inexperienced and poor, set out for Constantinople under Peter The Hermit and Walter the Penniless even before the army gathered. Some began by massacring Jews in the Rhine valley. Many perished on their way east, and the rest were destroyed by the Muslims when they crossed into Anatolia.
The main army, mostly French and Norman knights under baronial leadership--Godfrey of Boullion, Baldwin of Flanders, Raymond of Toulouse, Robert of Normandy, Bohemond of Taranto, and others--assembled at Constantinople and proceeded on a long, arduous march through Anatolia. They captured Antioch (June 3, 1098) and finally Jerusalem (July 15, 1099) in savage battles. By the end of the campaign, four Crusader states had been formed along the Syrian and Palestinian coast: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, where Baldwin was crowned king. Continuing rivalry among the leaders and the other nobles, however, undermined any chance of consolidating these acquisitions almost from the beginning.
The sleeve for "King For A Day" depicts the Seige Of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, probably during this period.
The Second Crusade (1147-49)
The next Crusade had its immediate cause in the loss (1144) of Edessa to the Muslims of Mosul and Aleppo. Challenged by St. Bernard Of Clairvaux, King Louis VII of France and the German King Conrad III tried to lead separate armies through Anatolia. What remained of them joined in an unsuccessful siege of Damascus. The only success of this Crusade was the capture (1147) of Lisbon, Portugal, by English and Frisian Crusaders on their way to the East by ship.
The Third Crusade (1188-92)
The Third Crusade was a response to the conquest (1187) of almost all of Palestine, including Jerusalem, by Sultan Saladin, who had consolidated Muslim power in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt. The Crusade's illustrious leadership included King Philip II of France, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick, I, and King Richard I (Lionheart) of England. Frederick, however, drowned en route in Cilicia, and the Crusading effort disintegrated through attrition and lack of cooperation. Acre was recaptured (1191), but Philip returned to France soon after. Jaffa was secured, mainly through the initiative of Richard, who also occupied Cyprus.
The Fourth Crusade (1202-04)
Pope Innocent III attempted to reorganize the Crusading efforts under papal auspices. But lack of funds to pay for the passage of the 10,000 Crusaders in Venice forced a diversion of the mostly French army. At the request of the Venetians, the Crusaders first attacked the Christian city of Zara, in Dalmatia. Then they sailed on to lay siege of Constantinople. The Byzantine capital fell on Apr. 13, 1204; it was looted--particularly for its treasures of relics--and made the residence of a Latin emperor, with Baldwin, count of Flanders, as the first incumbent. A Greek army almost casually recaptured the city in 1261.
The results of the Crusades are difficult to assess. In religious terms, they hardened Muslim attitudes toward Christians. At the same time, doubts were raised among Christians about God's will, the church's authority, and the role of the papacy. Religious fervor yielded to disinterest, skepticism, and a growing legalism (as, for example, in the use of indulgences). On the other hand, the Crusades did stimulate religious enthusiasm on a broad scale. They inspired a great literature in Latin and in the vernacular, especially the Romance languages. Contacts with the Muslim world started to replace ignorance about other cultures and religions with a certain respect for them. The idea of religious conversion by force gave way to a new emphasis on apologetics and mission. Peter the Venerable, an abbot of Cluny, had the Koran translated into Latin (1143), and Saint Francis of Assisi tried in person to convert the sultan of Damietta during the Fifth Crusade. Later Franciscans continued the concern for mission to the Muslims.
