This literature review adds considerable detail to the content of the authors' article of the same name published in 1999. This selection highlights material of particular interest to my nascent educational inquiry. (Emphasis is mine.)
Types of homework
'The type of homework set by schools varies... In the early years it usually consists of working on basic skills with the help of parents. As pupils progress through the primary school they may be asked to learn spellings, do sums or learn tables and less parental support is expected... Recent research in Scotland (MacBeath and Turner, 1990) suggests that the four most common types of homework are finishing off work started in class; self-contained or parallel homework (distinct from classwork); spontaneous work arising out of a project or activity being undertaken; preparation reading or research done in advance of the lesson. Other suggestions to provide variety in homework include investigations, research, reading, interviews, public library visits, designing, word processing, simple experiments, drafting, revision, desktop publishing, essay writing, report writing, making a model, and projects.'
Declaring limits
Limiting the impact of homework on family life: 'At the time of the survey, Denmark, Luxembourg and several of the Lander in West Germany forbade the setting of homework tasks at weekends. The Spanish regulations specifically forbade teachers to ask pupils to do work of a general, regular or periodic nature outside of schools and in Greece, in response to parents wishes, guidelines about methods of teaching and the structure of lessons meant that homework was generally perceived as unnecessary.'
Effectiveness of different kinds of homework
An interesting extract: 'Earle (1992) suggests that homework should be framed within instructional design theory to maximise its effects. He cites the Gagne-Briggs and Wager (1988) model as an appropriate framework suggesting that homework should be a valid component of instruction and that a lack of understanding of the instructional significance of homework leads teachers to use it inappropriately. This is supported by the findings of MacBeath and Turner (1990) who indicate that pupils perceive that homework is useful when it is perceived as an integral part of school work. Earle suggests that homework can meet six of the nine 'events' outlined by Gagne as functions of instruction: stimulating recall of prerequisite material; presenting the stimulus material; eliciting performance; providing feedback about performance correctness; assessing performance; and enhancing retention and transfer. He further suggests that if materials are prepared as a self-instructional module the remaining three events, gaining attention; informing learners of objectives, and providing learning guidance could also be included. He proposes that consideration of these would elevate homework to a position of value in the learning process. Whether one agrees that the model suggested by Earle would provide the best framework within which to consider homework, it is clear that homework is likely to be more effective if it is planned to satisfy planned aims and objectives within the curriculum (DES, 1987; OFSTED, 1995). Research to date has largely ignored this issue although a few studies have considered the relative effectiveness of different types of homework.'
'Cooper (1989) in a meta-analysis found that the instructional purpose of homework, whether it was practice or preparation had little effect on students' attitudes but that on both immediate and delayed achievement measures homework that included preparation, practice, or both was more effective than homework concerned only with current curriculum content... Where learning outcomes were measured in the longer term, preparation homework seemed more effective than practice homework. In general, Cooper concluded that preparation and practice homework were more beneficial than working on current topics... Studies considering extension homework suggest that it is no more effective than other types of homework (Baughman and Pruitt, 1963; Peterson, 1969). However, caution is needed in generalising these findings as the studies were all related to secondary schools and most were concerned with maths homework. Nevertheless, according to current theories of memory, homework which provides opportunities for revising or previewing work at different times to those when it is being learned in class is more likely to facilitate retention.'
'While there has been no UK research on the effectiveness of different kinds of homework, the DES (1987) reported, on the basis of their observations, that successful homework was interpreted and implemented within flexible guidelines which avoided adherence to a rigid time allocation and made allowance for widely differing circumstances, age, ability, and home conditions. Quality was important rather than quantity, and although homework might include some routine work other more creative activities were seen as beneficial.'
Skill area utilised
'An extension of the research described above (previous section) considers the particular skills utilised by homework. There are relatively few such studies. Nadis (1965) conducted a study relating to history homework for pupils in grade 9. The relative effectiveness of reading only, with reading plus answering related questions or reading plus outlining the material read was compared. No significant differences were found, although the students reported that written homework assignments were more effective because they assisted with memorisation and ensured that homework was actually undertaken.'
Differentiation
'...Together these studies indicate mixed benefits in individualising homework. The issue would seem to be what is seen as the ultimate purpose of homework. Should schools be attempting to ensure that every child spends the same amount of time doing homework? If so individualistaion is clearly essential. If the aim is to attempt to ensure that every child has covered the same curriculum, individualistaion is inappropriate and some students will need to spend a greater amount of time on homework to keep up with their peers. If the aim is to ensure that every child is given work that will be of maximum benefit to their overall intellectual development then individualisation will be necessary. While this implies that schools need to establish the overall aims and purpose of homework it is likely that there will be variation dependent on the nature of the subject domain, the particular topic being studied, and other characteristics of the pupils. Further research is needed to illuminate these issues.'
Low achieving pupils
'There is certainly evidence that low ability students who do regular homework can achieve higher average grades than more able pupils who do no homework at all (Keith, 1982).'
'Children with special educational needs can benefit from doing homework (Strukoff et al., 1987; Salend and Schliff, 1989, Mims et al., 1991) The extra attention and closer home/school liaison resulting from being set homework can lead to marked progress, particularly if the work is presented as an integral part of the learning process (Rosenberg, 1989). However, Polloway et al (1992) found that students aged 8-17 experienced two and a half times the level of difficulty with specific homework problems as their non-disabled peers. Teachers need to be aware of this in setting homework.'
Study skills
'In an early study, Hudson (1965) reported that homework inculcated better study habits and time management than supervised study. In contrast Macfarlane (1987) reported that no development appeared to take place in the pupils' understanding of the role of homework, or in their ability to cope with independent study. This may have been because they did not appear to have been taught how to organise their study time, instructions about homework were given hurriedly, with insufficient guidance. There were inadequate opportunities to ask questions, seek clarification and assignments were often unrelated to classwork. Students repeatedly indicated these factors as causes of difficulties.'
Motivating students to complete homework
'Teachers can provide reinforcement for completion, accuracy or quality of homework or punishment for non-completion... MacBeath and Turner found that a range of sanctions were adopted in the UK, e.g. extra work, lines, double the amount of homework . Most teachers favoured the use of sanctions when homework was not completed. However, there were differences between schools (MacBeath and Turner 1990). Some schools placed a greater emphasis on persuasion than punishments. There are dilemmas here for teachers as some children may not have completed homework because they found it too difficult or because of home circumstances (Le Metais, 1985).'
Future research: primary phase
'Questions which need addressing at primary and secondary level include:
- The effects of different types of homework on a range of learning outcomes in different subject domains
- The effects of different time scales of homework, short and long term projects
- The effects of different kinds of feedback
- The types of homework most effective for pupils of different ages
- To what extent homework needs to be differentiated in order to be optimally effective
- The extent to which and under what circumstances different kinds of parental involvement in homework are appropriate
- How best to assist pupils who have inadequate facilities for doing homework at home
- The effects of a range of interventions to support homework, e.g. homework clubs, telephone help lines, study skills courses
- How best to guide parents in relation to their children's homework
- How teachers can best go about setting homework and giving feedback.'
Cowan, R. & Hallam, S. (1998), What
do we know about homework? A Literature Review.
Paper given at the
Annual Conference of the Education Section of the British Psychological Society,
Exeter, September 1998
(Supplied by S. Hallam)
